Grammatical Cohesion
According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 4), cohesion occurs when the interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another. It concludes that the one element presupposes the other. The element cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. Moreover, the basic concept of it is a semantic one. It refers to relations of meaning that exists within the text. So, when this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby integrated into a text. Halliday and Hasan (1976: 39) classify grammatical cohesion into reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction.
Substitution
Substitution is a relation between linguistic items, such as words or phrases or in the other word, it is a relation on the lexico-grammatical level, the level of grammar and vocabulary, or linguistic form. It is also usually as relation in the wording rather than in the meaning. The criterion is the grammar function of the substitution item. In English, the substitution may function as a noun, as verb, or as a clause. Then, Halliday and Hasan divide the three types of substitution namely nominal, verbal, and clausal (1976: 90). The table below is summary of substitution forms.
Table 2.7 Substitution Form
| | Thing (count noun) | One(s) | The same |
| Nominal | Process | So | Do the same |
| | (Nominalized) Attribute Fact | | Be Say |
| Verbal | Process(+…) | Do | Do so |
| Clausal (): report, condition, modality | Positive Negative | So Not | So Not |
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 141)
1) Nominal Substitution One/ Ones
The elements of nominal substitution are one, ones and same. The substitution one/ ones always function as head of a nominal group, and can substitute only for an item which is itself head of nominal group. Look at the example below:
a) My pen is too blunt. I must get a sharper one (1).
The word one is the substitution for pen.
b) I shoot the hippopotamus with bullets made of platinum because, if I use leaden ones, his hide is sure to flatten ‘em (2). (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 91).
In sentence (1) one is the substitution for pen. Hence the full form of the sentence is my pen is too blunt. I must get a sharper pen. Whereas in example (2) bullets is the head of nominal group leaden ones. The full form of the nominal group is leaden bullets.
2) Verbal Substitution
The verbal substitution in English is do. This operates as the head of a verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the lexical verb; and it is always in the final position in the group. Here are the examples:
a) Does Jean sing? – No, but Mary does (Halliday and Hasan, 1979: 118)
b) ‘I don’t know the meaning of half those long words, and, what’s more, I don’t believe you do either!’ (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 112).
In the example a) does substitues sing; in b) do subtitues know the meaning of half those long words.
The substitution do is almost always anaphoric; it may presuppose an element within the same sentence as itself, so that there is already a structural relation linking the presupposed to the presupposing clause; but it frequently substitutes an element in a preceding sentence, and therefore it is a primary source of cohesion within a text. Only occasionally, it is cathaporic, which is within the sentence and does not make contribution to cohesion.
3) Clausal Substitution
The words used as substitution are so and not. There are three environtments in which clausal substitution take place: report, condition and modality. In each of these environments it may take either of two forms, positive or negative; the positive is expressed by so, the negative by not.
a) Substitution of Reported Clauses
Look at the example below:
‘...if you’ve seen them so often, of course you know what they’re like’.
‘I believe so,’ Alice replied throughtfully. (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 131).
Here, so substitutes I know what they’re like.
The reported clause that is substituted by so or not is always declarative, whatever the mood of the presupposed clauses. There is no substitution for interogative or imperative indirect questions or commands), and therefore the clauses substitution do not following verbs such as wonder, order or ask.
b) Substitution of Conditional Clauses
A second context for clausal substitution os that of conditional structure. Conditional clauses are frequently substituted by so and not, especially following if but also in other forms such as assuming so, suppose not:
(1) Everyone seems to think he’s guilty. If so, noo doubt he’ll offer to resign.
(2) We should recgnize the place when we come to it.
Yes, but supposing not: thenn what do we do? (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 134).
In sentence (1) so substitutes he is guilty, whereas not in the sentence (2) substitues we don’t recognize the place when we come to it.
c) Substitution of Modalized Clauses
Finally, so and not occur as substitution for clauses expressing modality. Look at the example below:
‘Oh, I beg your pardon!’ cried Alice hastily, afraid that she had hurt the poor animal’s feelings. ‘I quite forgot you didn’t like cats’.
Not like cats!’ cried the mouse, in a shrill, passionate voice,
‘Would you like cats if you were me?’
‘Well, perhaps not, said Alice in a shooting tone: … (Halliday and Hasan, 1976: 134).
Modality is the speaker’s assessment of the probabilities inherent in the situation, as in the example above. These may be expressed either by modal forms of the verb (will, would, can, could, may, must, should, is, to and ought to), or by modal adverbs such as perhaps, possibly, probably, certainly, surely; the latter are frequently followed by a clausal substitute, with the proviso already noted, that those expressing certainly do not accept substitution in the positive, though they do in the negative.
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